PSY 110 Ders Notları

Psy 110 Ders Notları 6 (General Psychology) 

• Learning temeli: association. (is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience) We learn by association. 3 conditioning modeli var öğrenmede.

1. classical conditioning,
2. operant conditioning,
3. by observation.

Classical Learning

• Associative Learning: Learning to associate one stimulus with another. Priming de burada önemlidir bir şimşek çakmasının ardından gök gürültüsü oluşur. Burada priming şimşektir ardından gök gürlemesi oluşacağını öğrenmişsinizdir. Teacher always use priming in the lectures. /Bir candy bar’a para attığınızda, raflara bakınıp örneğin 9 numarayı seçip düşen çikolatayı yersiniz. Eğer tadını sevdiyseniz bir sonrakinde direkt 9 numaraya basarsınız. önemli
• Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s dog experiment. (Ivan Pavlov). John Watson daha sonraki behavioral çalışmalarında Ivan Pavlov’dan etkilenmiştir.
• Pavlov’s dog exp.: Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.
  • Köpek koşullandırılmamışken yiyecek gördüğünde salya akıtır. Bu onun doğal tepkisidir. Burada yemek koşullandırılmamış olan uyarandır, salya ise koşullandırılmamış tepkidir. Daha sonra bir tone kullanılır (tone: çınlama sesi çıkaran eğik metal obje. Tone burada neutral stimulustür. Alakasız bir obje. ) Köpek tone’a salya ile tepki vermez. 3. Aşamada tone yemek ile birlikte sunulur. Köpek salya akıtır. Sonrasında köpek tone’u tekrar gördüğünde, yemek olmasa bile salya akıtmaya başlar çünkü onu yemek ile ilişkilendirmiştir. Yani köpek koşullandırılmıştır. Böylece tone CS (conditioned stimulus), köpeğin tone’a verdiği koşullanmış tepki ise CR (conditioned response) olur.
  • Yani unconditioned ve conditioned response hep aynıdır UR=CR (salya). Ancak conditioned stimulus daha önce neutral stimulustur (tone). Unconditioned stimulus ise öğretilmeden response alınan uyarandır (food). CS, CR, US, UR ve NS kesin gelecek.
  • Örn: Last year Zeynep was robbed by a young man who threatened her with a knife. It was an unexpected and frightening experience. This event occurred just about dusk and for a long time thereafter, she often experienced moments of dread in the late afternoons. (UR and CR=to be frightened. Robbery: US, dusk= CS)
• Acquisition: is the initial learning stage in classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place. 1- In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus. 2- The time in between the two stimuli should be about half a second. The CS needs to come half a second before the US for acquisition to occur. Soğan Deneyi: (week 10/slayt 10) üzerinde durdu. Partner+soğan kokusu+the kiss= sexual arousal, sonrasında soğan kokusu = sexual arousal özetle.
• Extinction: Üzerinden çok zaman geçen CS’ler zamanla unutulur. Örn: 3 yıl önce ayrıldığınız partnerin parfümünün artık birşey ifade etmemesi gibi. Organizma der ki; it is not an alarm anymore. Pavlov’s dog için mesela; When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and eventually causes extinction. geliyor
• Spontaneous Recovery: Parfümü bir süre sonra kokladığında beyin sorar: hala unutmak istiyor musun? Tamamen delete edeyim mi? Ve bu aşamada son birkez hatırlanır önemi. Ama artık koşullanma yoksa beyin bunu tamamen delete eder. Beynin aldığı bu aksiyonların hepsinin amacı: to be survived’dır. Pavlov’s dog için; After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again. önemli
• Stimulus Generalization: Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization. Pavlov conditioned the dog’s salivation (CR) by using miniature vibrators (CS) on the thigh. When he subsequently stimulated other parts of the dog’s body, salivation dropped. Köpek CS’ye beneyen şeylere de salya ile (CR) response vermeye başlar. Tone’un çıkardığı sese benziyorsa; kapı ziline, cep telefonu melodisine vb.
• Stimulus Discrimination: Mesela köpeklere ses tonlarını ayırt etme öğretilebilir. Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
• Applications of Classical Conditioning: Studying may be unpleasant for John because it has been paired with frustration (hating to do it). Much of what we like or dislike is a result of classical conditioning. John Watson used classical conditioning procedures to develop advertising campaigns for a number of organizations, including Maxwell House, making the “coffee break” an American custom.

Operant Learning

• Operant chamber: The operant chamber, or Skinner box, comes with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food or water. The bar or key is connected to devices that record the animal’s response. (genellikle laboratuvar faresiyle yapılan deneylerde kullanılmış.)
• Shaping: Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations. (reward&punishment)
• Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. A heat lamp positively reinforces a meerkat’s behavior in the cold. (pekiştirmek, smthng that always wanted, reward yoluyla öğretmek)
•   bu tablo önemli.
• Primary reinforcers: An innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink.
• Conditioned reinforcers: A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer. A type of secondary reinforcer.
•     Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press.
• Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week.
•     Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs. (birşeyi ilk kez öğrenirken bu önemli)
• Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only part of the time. Though this  results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later on. (öğrenilmesi zor ilk etapta, in the acquisition period we use continuous reinforcement)
• Ratio Schedules: 1-Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.( e.g., piecework pay.) 2-Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. This is hard to extinguish because of the unpredictability. (e.g., behaviors like gambling, fishing.)
• Interval Schedules: 1-Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (e.g., preparing for an exam only when the exam draws close.) 2-Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses. (e.g., pop quiz. Bilginin sürekli taze tutulması ve düzenli çalışmayı sağlamak için. Hoca aniden pop quiz yapıyorsa öğrenciler sürekli çalışmak zorunda kalırlar gibi.)
• Punisment: An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows. Although there may be some justification for occasional punishment (Larzelaere & Baumrind, 2002), it usually leads to negative effects. 1-negative punishment: withdraw a desireable stimulus (istenilen birşeyden mahrum bırakarak.) 2-positive punishment: adding smthng unwanted (istenmeyen birşey ekleyerek ceza vermek. Örn: tokat atmak (you add smthng unwanted) kesin
• Punishment sonucunda: 1–Results in unwanted fears. 2-Conveys no information to the organism. 3-Justifies pain to others. 4-Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in its absence. 5-Causes aggression towards the agent. 6-Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in place of another.
• Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. (kendimiz için)
• Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments. (ödül almak ya da cezadan kaçınmak uğruna)
• Skinner’s legacy: Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will. Skinner also introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements for correct rewards.
• Distinction between classical and operant conditioning? Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events. Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli. önemli
• Slay 39&40 önemli.

Learning By Observation

• Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others. (children)
• Mirror neurons: Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning. Mirror nöronlar imitatinge yardımcı oluyor. Kesin
• Learning by observation begins early in life. Bandura’s Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments. Kesin
• Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects. On the other hand, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects.
• Modelling Violence: Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased aggression. Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression.